Glossary

Below you will find terms often used by those who are describing gods or their attributes and characteristics. You will find here definitions of a caduceus, an ankh. Which gods are tutelary or conflated, cognate or chthonic.

A cautionary word. A fellow called Alexander David Mackenzie, a renowned and respected folklorist, invented a deity named Beira in the last century. She was a romanticised, conflated version of the Cailleach Bheur, a frightful wintry figure known from several sources in the Scottish, Irish and Isle of Man Celtic traditions. Beira now appears in most lists of Celtic deities.

Aballach, is a hypothetical divinity mooted in 1891 by Sir John Rhys as giving his name to Avalon, King Arthur's last resting place. In Arthurian legend he has no noticeably divine attributes; he is merely a dynastic head man or king (Afallach), father to 'divine mother' Modron or to Morgan Le Fay (both possibly adaptations of Matrona, goddess of the Marne river).

I give these two examples to warn readers that from time to time, and over centuries if not millennia, writers have seen fit to fill gaps in pantheons, or marry pantheons or legends together, and in so doing, have traditionally had no compunctions about inventing deities.

Hesiod and Homer, for instance, should be above reproof in this matter; but close reading shows they are not. I have no doubt this still goes on. Where I suspect such shenanigans, I will add a note or put something like 'known from one reference only'. Even this does not solve the problem. In our Google/Wikipedia age, a 'false' god invented for a joke or gullibility test can fly round the world faster than Iris, her hubbie Zephyrus, or the winged Hermes, and can be glibly added to list of deities alongside perfectly legitimate, long-standing, multi-traditional, well-cited supernaturals, like the little lad who appears three times in that super-long school photo. I would be surprised if a handful of these spurious deities haven't crept past my watchful gates. Be warned.

A

Abgal (Apkallu)

Seven water-spirits under ENKI's dominion, their origin APSU / ABZU, the primal waters of creation. They are sometimes depicted as fish-men.

Abhiyoga

A generic term for servile gods who help the major gods create rain and darkness.

Aesir

Generic term for the senior pantheon of gods led, it is presumed, by ODIN. In myths they usually number seven of 12. A war between the Aesir and the VANIR led to the taking of hostages: thus, the Vanir fertility gods NJORD and his son and daughter FREYR and FREYJA joined the Aesir. The name may have etymology linking it to ‘the winds’.

Agathion

Despite its Greek-sounding name, in English mediaevalism a familiar spirit which appears only at midday in the shape of a human of animal but can appear inside or on a talisman, bottle or magic ring (W).

Agnikumara

Generic: Youthful gods associated with rain and thunderstorms.

Agnostos Theos

Unknown gods worshipped as a group, presumably by those fearful of offending any overlooked deity.

Ahimsa

The belief that one should inflict no harm on other living things.

Ahtolaiset (Allotar)

A collective term for water-people. They include ALLOTAR, IKU-TURSO, KOSKENNEITI, MELATAR, PIKKU MEIS AND WETEHILIEN. They are the spirit-folk of lakes, fountains, rivers and seas.

Alawites (Alawi, Alawis)

A sect of the 'Twelver' branch of Shia Islam, whose heartland is Syria but whose adherents can be found in eastern Turkey and northern Lebanon. The sect was founded in about 940AD by Ibn Nusayr and, though their beliefs have traditionally been kept secret, they are known to worship a trinitarian God whose aspects or emanations appear cyclically in human history. Majority Sunni Muslims generally regard Alawite religion as non-Muslim. Alawites celebrate a form of Mass, adopt Christian names and celebrate the feast days of early Christian bishop John Chrysostom and Mary Magdalene. Their only places of worship are tombs.

Anemoi (Venta, Venti)

Collective name for the the deities of the winds. They appear personified even in the Homeric poems, but at the same time they are conceived as ordinary phenomena of nature. The master and ruler of all the winds is AEOLUS, but other gods, especially ZEUS, exercise a power over them. The gods themselves are associated with a season and/or a particular kind of weather. They are depicted either as winged men or as horses from the stable of Aeolus. Their parents, according to Hesiod, are ASTRAEUS (sometimes another name for Aeolus) and EOS, goddess of the dawn. The Roman versions of the Anemoi are the VENTI, whose characteristics are often conflated with their Greek counterparts.

Angel

Etymologically, the word 'angel' can be traced back to the Linear B script of Mycenae, whence it travelled into Greek (angelos), Latin (angelus) and into English (from the Germanic) and Old French. An angel is a messenger or envoy from God or the spirit world, or a guardian spirit or guiding influence in human affairs. They are usually depicted in humanoid form with feathered wings on their backs and halos around their heads. In Zoroastrianism, and later in the Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam), they are benevolent celestial beings of considerable power, charged with carrying out God's tasks. The term 'angel' has also been expanded to various notions of spirits found in many other religious traditions.

Animism

A belief that everything in the world is alive and has a soul, and thus is both interactive with human beings and worthy of respect and/or worship. Animistic belief systems exist in Zambia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, the Republic of Guinea-Bissau, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Russia, Sweden, Thailand, and the US (revivalist native Americans). Shinto, the religion of pre-Buddhist Japan, is an animistic religion.

Ankh

A symbol of healing and life, carried by gods and royalty only.

Apsaras

In Vedic Hinduism, these are powerful water spirits, musicians, the patrons of gamblers and the bringers of madness.

Araucanian

Descriptive and collective term for three tribes of south-central Chile, with their own distinctive mythology.

Argonauts

Generic term for the 50 (or so) heroes, immortals and semi-immortals who accompanied Jason on the ship Argo to fetch the Golden Fleece from a grove sacred to ARES at Colchis, on the further shores of the Euxine (Black) Sea. The story, possibly pre-Homeric, combined a number of early local legends but is principally an allegorical tale about the opening up of the Black Sea to Greek trade and colonisation. The group started out with HERCULES (HERACLES), ORPHEUS, CASTOR and POLLUX, and PELEUS, but later revisions added other heroes’ names to the passenger list.

Arit

A connecting point or portal between the environment and the inner self. Each arit has guardians and guides.

Ascetic

One who practises extreme self-denial and self-discipline, often to achieve spiritual enlightenment.

Ashvins (Asvins)

The Ashvins are physician deities, twin gods riding in a chariot drawn either by horses or birds, the sons of VIVASVIN and SARANYU. Their attributes are a water jar, a book and a herb-basket.

Astamatara

A generic term for eight often malevolent mother-goddesses, manifestations of the goddess CAMUNDA.

Asura

Generic term for a class of Titanic sky gods who, in the Vedic age of early Hinduism, were benevolent but who later turned evil and opposed the DEVAs or DAIVAs. In Iran (Persia), the devas became the Zoroastrian bad spirits and the asuras the good. In the Jain tradition, ASURAKUMARA are youthful-looking deities associated with rain and thunder.

Asynjur

The collective term for the female goddesses of Asgard, including FRIGG and FREYR.

Aumakua

The spirit of an ancestor or family god.

Avestan

An ancient East Iranian language closely related to Vedic Sanskrit (qv) and the vehicle of Zoroastrian scripture.

B

B'alam

A set of four guardian spirits/deities who sit at the cardinal points around a Mayan village to protect it from dangerous animals, or around a smallholding to protect against thieves.

Bannik

A domestic spirit of the wash-house who, if asked nicely, can be questioned about the future.

Banshee

Generic: a female spirit whose wailing at night is believed to foretell the death in the family of the one who hears it. The Irish form is bean sidhe, the Scottish Gaelic ban sith, and Welsh gwrach y Rhibyn, or ‘witch of Rhybin’. Irish and Scottish Gaelic versions translate as ‘woman of the fairies’.

Barghest

A nocturnal demon dog with huge eyes, claws and teeth. Sight of this monster presages death. All areas of the British Isles appear to have versions: the Barghests of Burnley and Trollers’ Ghyll (North Yorkshire), and the headless Barghest of Manchester, the Demon of Tidworth, the Padfoot of Wakefield, the Black Dog of Winchester, the Trash, Striker or Skriker of Lancashire and East Anglia’s amphibious Black Shuck are a few. In Wales there is the red-eyed Gwyllgi, Dog of Darkness, and Cwn Annwn, the Dogs of Hell; in the Isle of Man there’s Mauthe Doog.

Beltiya

A term meaning 'my lady', and generically referring to all Babylonian and Akkadian goddesses. The title is closely associated with ZARPANITUM, consort of MARDUK.

Bhavanavasi

Gods of youthful appearance who are arranged in 10 groups, all with the suffix '-KUMARA'. Thus, AGNI-KUMARA, ASURA-, DIK-, DVIPA-, NAGA-, STANITA-, SUPARNA-, UDADHI-, VAYU-, AND VIDYUT- They are considered residential and live in the upper levels of the Underworld. Other categories of similar deities, according to the Jains' Work of Salvation, are the VAIMANIKA, the VYANTERA and the JYOTISKA.

Bodhisattva

Though it remains an open question as to whether bodhisattvas or buddhas are divine, they are most often eternal, having entered nirvana. ‘Celestial’ bodhisattvas, in East Asia, are regarded as manifestations of the Eternal Buddha and are often deemed more significant than the buddha himself. The foremost bodhisattva is the compassionate and merciful lord AVALOKITESVARA, patron saint of Tibet, who is associated with the Eternal Buddha AMITABHA. In China, where Avalokitesvara is known as KUAN-YIN, MANJUSRI (Wisdom, or Glorious Gentle One), KSITIGARBHA (Saviour of the Dead or Womb of the Earth) and SAMANTABHADRA (Happiness) are a powerful foursome. In Tibet, Avalokitesvara, Manjusri and VAJRAPANI (He Who Holds the Thunderbolt) are a popular trinity. Avalokitesvara is known as KWANNON in Japan and KWANDYEIEUM in Korea. Ksitigarbha is known as TI-TS’ANG in China and JIZO in Japan, where he is the lord of hell. MAITREYA, a future buddha or bodhisattva, is the only deity honoured by the Theravadin sect, or Followers of the Way of the Elders, or Lesser Vehicle Buddhists.

Bolon(Tiku)

The generic and plural name for the nine gods, each of whom ruled an underworld. First noted in the Chilam Bolam books.

Byname (Bye-Name, Toponym)

A name derived from a place-name. Thus, Diana Nemorensis, Diana of Nemi (a town SE of Rome). Bynames are similar: APHRODITE is sometimes called APHRODITE CYPRI in recognition of the fact that one of her most significant cult centres was on Cyprus.

C

Caduceus

A winged staff such as that carried by HERMES or IRIS. The staff carried by AESKLEPIOS/AESCLEPIUS is NOT a caduceus.

Cakra, Chakra

A focal point of bodily energy according to the esoteric traditions of Hinduism but a concept also found in Buddhism and Jainism. Hindu texts speak of seven such bodily centres, visualised as variously coloured wheels or circles; Buddhists see four cakras. These energy centres are part of the spiritual or 'subtle' body, not the physical, and can be manipulated or enhanced by yoga and breathing exercises.

Camenae

Generic term for prophetic wood-nymphs who inhabited groves, typically the Porta Capena outside Rome. One authority has them as ‘goddesses of wells and springs’. As a numen or protective spirit, Camena is credited with giving a developing child the desire and ability to sing. The Camenae were called CARMENTA, EGERIA, ANTEVORTA and POSTVORTA.

Cerreri

An Oscan (pre-Roman) term for the individual souls of men and women, called in Rome Genius for men and Juno for women. Thus, Genius loci = the soul or spirit of a certain place or object.

Changtung

Village-guardian spirits.

Cheondoism (Chondoism)

A religious movement and philosophy with roots in the 1860s, founded by Jeon Bongjun as an antidote to Western influences. It attracted the rural population of Korea and inspired rebellion against the then Korean empire. Followers believe life is generated from a God who lives in all things, and that therfroe heaven is also achievable internally; in this respect Cheondoism reflects influences of Taoism, Buddhism and (Gnostic) Christianity.

Cherub (Cherubim)

Celestial beings common in Jewish, Christian and Islamic literature. They are generally hybrids, winged beings with birdlike, human or animal characteristics. Like seraphim, they guard or bear the throne of the deity.

Chirangivi

A generic term for seven immortal living beings who will remain alive on earth until the end of the current Kali Yuga era.

Chthonic

Of the underworld or the earth, soil, caves, or of the fires beneath the earth, or the deeps of the water. Early fertility deities are often chthonic because they encourage the soil to be fertile. Chthonic deities are not necessarily dark or evil.

Cognate

Words which come from the same source, usually recognisably so (ie shirt and skirt, night and nuit and nicht). Under ASTARTE you will find the ‘cognates’ ATHTART, ATHTARTU, ASHTART, ASTART, ASHTAROTH, ASHTORETH, ISHTAR.

Cominuii

Generic term equivalent to the Roman MANES, used by the (pre-Roman) Oscans.

Conflate, Conflation

To combine two or more similar deities into one. Thus, the Mesopotamian goddess ASTARTE becomes, under Greek influence, conflated with APHRODITE and sometimes ARTEMIS.

Copts

A very early branch of Christianity survives in the ethno-religious Coptic territories, which are principally in Egypt, Sudan and Libya. Legend has it that St Mark founded the first Coptic church in Alexandria in about 42AD and the faith had spread rapidly across most of Egypt by the 2nd century AD. It remained the religion of the majority after the Muslim conquest of Egypt in the 10th century and the Coptic branch, despite persecution, remains the largest form of Christianity in all three countries. Coptic intellectuals claim their religion was founded in pre-Christian, Pharaonic times, but this is challenged by modern scholarship.

Cyclops

A race of one-eyed giants, the craftsmen and builder sons of URANUS and GAIA and brothers to the TITANS, though Homer has them as the herdsmen sons of POSEIDON. The three elder Cyclopes are BRONTES, STEROPES and ARGES. ZEUS releases them from the pit of Tartarus and they provide Zeus' thunderbolt, HADES' helmet of invisibility and Poseidon's trident, devices used to defeat the Titans. Other Cyclopes include ALKMONIDES, PYRAKMON, EURYALOS, ELATREUS, TRAKHIOS and HALIMEDES.

D

Daeva

The generic term for a deceiving (and self-deceiving) demon or wrong and false god. Chief among them appears to have been PAITISHA, the 'Opponent'.

Dausos (Dangus, Debeskalns)

The Lithuanian heaven, known in Latvia as DEBESKALNS. It is the mountain home of good souls, a garden or orchard of gold apple trees between two rivers, a land of perpetual daylight in a vast land of perpetual darkness. The ruler (and one of the gatekeepers, with AUŠTARAS) of Dausos is VĖJOPATIS, lord of the wind, or VĖJAS (Wind), both of these among the most ancient of Lithuanian deities. Vėjas is identical to Hinduism's VAYU. While Austaras shows the way for good souls to enter Dausos, Vėjas /Vėjopatis blows bad souls into oblivion.

Demiurge

A generic term used in many belief systems to describe the entity who creates the world or cosmos on the chief god’s behalf. ‘Demiurge’ is a term thought to have been used first by Plato.

Deva (Devi, Daeva)

The Sanskrit word expresses divine essence, deva being male, devi being female. The word 'divine' derived directly from it. Neither is a deity, though Wikipedia offers 'benificent supernatural entity' for both, and 'superhuman being' for the Buddhist version. In the Hindu ancient scripture the Rg Veda 30 or 33 devas are proposed, diving into three groups of 10 or 11. Key manifestations of the Devi in later Hinduism are PARVATI, pacifying wife of SHIVA, DURGA, a fierce form of Parvati, or KALI; generally, the deva are all deities outside the prime triad of BRAHMA, VISHNU AND SHIVA.

Dev (Devs)

Generic term for monsters, dragons, serpents or giants; alternately or in addition, immortal spirits that live in ruins.

Dii

The names simply means ‘gods’. However, there were the DII SUPERIORES, the High Gods, the DII INVOLUTI or the Covered gods, wrapped in shadow, and the DII CONSENTES, the 12 Consenting Gods, advisers to TIN/TINIA (JUPITER). Numbered with the Dii were the NOVENSILES, the nine gods who throw lightning.

Domovoi (Domovoe)

A generic term – the singular is domovoe – for apelike domestic spirits who live behind the oven and can abandon the house if not properly propitiated. They are the protectors also of herds and household animals. They sometimes appear in human form.

Druze

A monotheistic religion of western Asia drawing inspiration from Abrahamic faiths, particularly Ismaili (Sh'ia) Islam, though it combines this with the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism and Pythagoreanism. Its chief religious text is the Epistles of Wisdom. Reincarnation and the transmigration of souls are central tenets. A religious minority, Druzes have a long history of persecution, most recently by Syria, ISIS and Al-Quaeda, though many Druzes occupy influential positions in Lebanese and Israeli society. Most authorities do not consider them a branch of Islam.

E

Ebu Gogo

A generic term for a tribe of tall, human-like creatures with wide, flat noses, broad faces, large mouths and hairy bodies. The females had long pendulous breasts. The name means 'grandmothers who eat anything'. Local mythology has them wiped out 100 years ago for raiding villages and stealing food and children.

Egungun

A generic term for the Yoruba people's venerated ancestors.

Einherjar

The dead warriors of Valhalla, companions of ODIN, who fight by day and feast by night, awaiting Ragnarok, the end of the world.

Elf

A small creature in human form, often mischievous, causing diseases and evil dreams. They steal children, substituting deformed or weak elves or fairies called changelings. Rarely, they can be benevolent and helpful. In his trilogy The Lord of the Rings and other works J R R Tolkein (dates) helped transform them into tall, athletic, noble near-immortals.

Ennead

A term for a group of deities assembled by the priestly caste to amalgamate Old Kingdom nomic tutelary deities into pantheonic form – a precursor to mythological structures.

Enochian

A term used to describe the occult or angelic language devised either by Adam or by Enoch and 'translated' by the 16th century English occultist/magician John Dee and his mediumistic colleague Edward Kelley. A panoply of angels and demons was 'discovered' and their names and characteristics are now much used in dungeons-and-dragons type internet forums.

Enuma Elish, Enȗma Eliš

A 1000-line Babylonian creation epic, written in Old Babylonian (Sumero-Akkadian) cuneiform script. Its primary purpose seems to have been to explain the Babylonian's chief god MARDUK's ascendancy over other Mesopotamian gods, principally ENLIL. It could date from anytime from 1800BC to 1100BC, and was probably written as a Babylonian New Year ritual text. It starts with the assumption that there are two primeval gods, APSȖ/ABZU as the fresh water principle, and TIAMAT the oceanic or saltwater principle. Several other gods are created by these two, EA ( also known as NUDIMMUD, and formerly ENKI) being the most powerful one. These reside in Tiamat's vast body, but their boastful noise annoys Apsu, who plans to kill them. Tiamat disagrees and warns Ea, who uses magic to put Apsu into a coma and kill him. Ea is now chief god, with his consort DAMKINA. The two have a son, Marduk, who is even more powerful than his parents. Marduk is given wind to play with and creates storms to disrupt Tiamat and the gods who live within her body, who encourage her to take revenge for the death of her husband. She creates 11 monsters and, with the help of some but not all of the gods within her, goes to war with Marduk. She elevates KINGU, her new consort, to 'supreme dominion'. Marduk offers to save the gods if they make him their leader – and keep him as leader after the threat has passed. Marduk challenges Tiamat to combat and destroys her, ripping her corpse into two halves which he turns into the earth and the sky. Marduk then creates the calendar, shapes the planets and stars and takes charge of the moon, sun and weather. The defeated pro-Tiamat gods are put to slave labour, from which they are freed when Marduk destroys Kingu and uses his blood to create mankind to do the work for the gods instead. A key element of the story is Marduk's elevation to supremacy over Enlil, who was regarded by earlier Mesopotamian societies as king of the gods.

Epithet

An alternative or local name encapsulating a particular aspect of the powers or function of a deity, or the place in which they can be found. Thus, Diana Nemorensis, or Diana of Nemi (a town SE of Rome, a major site for her worship) is adjectivally an epithet. In the Roman pantheon, the word ‘numen’ is used.

Eponym

A person, actual or mythical, after whom a place or tribe etc is named. Athens, for instance is named after the goddess Athena, so she is the eponym of Athens.

Erinyes (Furies, Dirai, Harpies)

The collective term for chthonic deities of vengeance, punishers of oathbreakers; the so-called 'infernal goddesses'. Virgil, probably working from an Alexandrian source, and followed by Dante in his Inferno, says there are three – ALECTO ('Unceasing'), MEGAERA ('Grudging') and TISIPHONE, or TILPHOUSIA ('Vengeful destruction') – but most other sources do not number them. They correspond to the DIRAE in Roman mythology and it has been suggested neatly that they are called Furies in Hell, HARPIES on earth, and Dirae in heaven. Hesiod's Theogony has them rising simultaneously with the MELIAE from the drops of blood shed by URANUS after his genitalia had been cut off and cast into the sea by his son the Titan CRONUS. Some accounts, however, say the Erinyes rose much earlier, emerging from NYX ('Night') or from a union between the air and GAIA (mother Earth). The Erinyes TILPHOUSIA / TELPHOUSIA is usually a by-name for the vengeful goddess DEMETER, who was worshipped under the title of Erinyes in the Arcadian town of Thelpousa.

Euan

Etruscan for an individual's immortal soul, like the Roman genius and juno or Oscan cerreri.

F

Five Shards Constellation

The unmoving spot around which the stars revolved, also called the 'womb point' from which the universe was born (Brian Griffiths, Chinese goddess cults).

Fravashi

Generic term for the essence of a person, whether living, dead or as yet unborn. Not quite the same as a 'soul', which is translated in Avestan as URVAN; on the individual's death fravashi sends out the urvan into the world to fight against evil. It returns after four days with its intelligence and experiences to help the next generation fight against evil.

G

Galla, Gallu

Underworld gods in the Sumerian and Babylonian-Akkadian systems, usually depicted as attendants of the goddess ERISHKIGAL.

Gaul

A region of western Europe during the Iron Age and into the Roman period, whose inhabitants were the descendants of the La Tène culture. The area encompasses present-day France, Luxembourg, Belgium, most of Switzerland, parts of northern Italy and some parts of the Netherlands and Germany, the Rhine marking the eastern extent of Gaul. The Romans in Julius Caesar's time saw Gaul as three distinct regions – Gallia Celtica, Gallia Belgica and Gallia Aquitania, roughly north, central and south Gaul, though earlier Roman conquests divided southern Gaul into Gallia Cisalpina and Gallia Narbonensis. The last Gallic state (Soissons) fell to the Franks in AD486 and though Gaul existed as a concept into the early Middle Ages, it was rebranded as the Capetian Kingdom of France (AD987). Even this was concept rather than reality

Gello (Gyllou, Gylou)

A child-snatching demon, a concept originating in Roman mythology but found in many cultures.

Genius (Genii)

Any of a class of spirits, each one the guide and protector of a particular (male) person, a family or a place. Similar in most respects to the modern idea of a guardian angel. See also JUNO.

God

This encyclopaedia is in UK English. Any discussion on the nature and origin of 'God' must therefore be biased against other cultures' names for and concepts of a deity. To put this into context, the word 'god' comes from the Anglo-Saxon and variations of this word can be found in all Germanic languages. The word 'deity' itself comes from the Latin 'deus' ('god'), which in turn derives from the conceptual Proto-Indo-European (PIE) language common to the majority of northern hemisphere peoples, including such distinct and separate language relations as Sanskrit, Latvian and Welsh. In Sanskrit, the ancient Indian language, for instance, 'deva/devi' means 'god/goddess' and the derived adjective 'divya' means transcendental or spiritual. The root of all these words is closely linked to the words for 'sky', so original concepts of deity involved the vastness and brilliance of the heavens: the chief deity of most religions worldwide is a 'sky father' or bringer and sustainer of light. Another verbal tradition entirely exists among proto-Semitic peoples, in which 'the' is added to the word for 'god'. This root word, EL or ELAH, appears to have originated in the Levant (the eastern Mediterranean littoral between Turkey and Egypt, including present-day western Syria, Lebanon, the Palestinian territories, Israel and Jordan). It is linked to the northwest Semitic ĒL and Akkadian ILU. It is the base for ILĀH/ILIHAH/ILĀHAH – Arabic for 'god/gods/goddess' and from it derives the Islamic AL-LĀH, usually (in English) written ALLAH, 'The God'. Other terms in use by Semitic speakers included RABB (Islamic 'Lord'), ADONAI (Hebraic 'Lord'), HASHEM (Hebraic 'The Name'), SHADDAI (Hebraic 'The Almighty'). Local variations include KHUDA, Persian for god, lord or king, and used today by Iranian and Urdu Muslims as another word for Allah; and TENGRI or TANRI, both Turkish words for God and often used interchangeably with Allah. Many hundreds of minor pantheons hold their chief god to be supreme and it would be presumptuous and rude of any group, however popular or historically ancient, to claim their deity is the one and only such being – unless one claims that the one true God is the same one in each case.

Graces (Charites, Gratiae)

(Usually) three minor goddesses representing the human and mostly female characteristics of charm, beauty, fertility both natural and human, and creativity. The river Cepihissus near Delphi is sacred to them. At various times and locations they have been ascribed different names and characteristics, but the usual list, from youngest to eldest, is AGLAEA ('Splendour'), EUPHROSYNE ('Mirth'), and THALIA ('Good Cheer'). In Roman mythology they are known as the GRATIAE or Graces. In some variants CHARIS is one of the Graces rather than the singular form of their name. They are usually the daughters of ZEUS and EURYNOME; or sometimes the daughters of DIONYSUS and APHRODITE, or of HELIOS and the Naiad AEGLE. Eurynome, by the way, appears in various myths as EURYDOME, EURYMEDOUSA or EUANTHE. The Spartans substituted CLETA for Thalia. Other Graces mentioned by mythologers include AUXO, HEGEMONE, PEITHO, PHAENNA, PASITHEA and Charis or CALE. A vase painting complicates this arrangement: on it, the Charites are five and are named ANTHEIA ('Blossoms'), EUDAIMONIA ('Happiness'), PAIDIA ('Play'), PANDAISIA (Banquet') and PANNYCHIS ('Night Festivities'). Pausanias says the Lacedaemonians had just two Graces, CLETA ('Sound' or 'Renowned') and PHAENNA ('Bright'), to which the Athenians added Auxo ('Increase' or Growth') and Hegemone ('Leader' or 'Queen'), and later, Peitho ('Persuasion'). Homer favours Charis and says she is the wife of HEPHAESTUS.

Gramadevata

Deities who protect boundaries. Many are named goddesses such as CAMUNDA, DURGA or KALI but others are specific to a local field or village, sometimes a town or city. They are represented by painted stones.

Gratiae

Generic term for goddesses, counterparts to the Greek CHARITES. They are patrons of the arts and are usually pictured naked with long flowing hair.

Gul-Šeš

A generic for goddesses of fate, dispassionately dispensing good and evil, life and death.

Gurdwara

A Sikh temple, the 'door of the guru'.

Guru Grant Sahib

The Sikh scriptures, containing poetry written by the ten Sikh gurus.

H

Haltijas

Generic: local Finnish animistic deities who can be human male or female or animals.

Hamadryad(E)S

A class of minor animistic female deity, each inhabiting and guarding her own tree. Popular both with Greeks and Romans.

Hamavehae

Generic: a group of three matres, Romano-Celtic mother-goddesses, known only in the Rhineland.

Harpies

A generic term; the sisters of rainbow goddess IRIS, they are AELLO, CELAENO and OCYPETE.

Hinthial

Etruscan for ghost, shade, or reflection.

Hyang (Hiang)

A hyang can be either a divinity or an ancestral spirit for many Indonesian people, particularly those in Java and Bali. The word appears in the title of many deities.

I

Icci

Generic: the Icci are 'masters' or 'owners'. In Siberian folklore, a generic term for animistic spirits controlled by URU'N AJY TOYU'N, 'White Creator Lord' (MJ).

Ideology

A way of thinking, or set of ideas, that forms the basis of a religious system.

Ifrit

Generic: a spirit less powerful than an angel or demon, being either good or evil, and known for their strength and cunning. They are depicted as winged, fiery creatures and live underground, often in or near ruins.

Igigi

A group of young sky gods in a pantheon headed by ENLIL. Their companions deities are the ANUNNKAI.

Imam

An Islamic teacher or prayer leader.

Incarnation

The process whereby a deity takes on human (or animal) form.

Indigetes (Indigimentum, Indigimenta, Numen, Numena)

An understanding of the 'ranking' of deities and their attributes is necessary. Some deities named in Ye Gods are numena (singular: numen). A numen is only a divine power or presence, not a god itself, infused into a location or object, or in an activity. The earliest Roman texts always name numena with reference to the gods who wield them, and never are they treated as anything separate from the gods themselves. Many numena exist for whom we do not know the associated deity, though in some instances we can hazard a guess. When an associated deity employs a numen, the aspect of the god or goddess is sometimes referred to by the name for the numen. Such a divine aspect, closely associated with a particular numen, is called an indigimentum (plural: indigimenta) of that particular god or goddess. Since the average Roman could not always remember which deity possessed which numena, the College of Pontiffs in Rome kept a list so that the correct divine names could be consulted and then invoked for public prayers. No complete list now exists, though scholars have tried to reconstruct one. Quite separately, INDIGETES are lesser deities in the Roman pantheon, such as the heroes Aeneas and Evander.

J

Jeung San Do (Jeungsanism)

A modern religious movement (founded in 1974) closely related to Taoism/Daoism, the title meaning 'the Dao/Tao of Jeung-san, Jeung-san (or Gang Il-sun, or Kang Jeungsan, or Chungsan) being an early 20th century religious leader considered by over 100 Korean religious groups to be the incarnation of Sangjenim, the ruling spirit of the universe. Jeong-san's appeal is that by message and healing meditation the universe might be reshaped in a better form than at present. But see CHEONDOISM.

Jinn (Djinn, Marid)

An pre-Islamic Arabic spiritual creature, either benevolent or malevolent, of whom the most powerful kinds are the MARIDS.

Jyotisha (Jyotiska, Joisiya)

One of four categories of celestial in Jainism, these ones being luminary or stellar deities.

K

Kafir Kalash

These people, who live in three remote valleys south of Chitral in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan and number about 4,500, share a unique and generally polytheistic nature-religion based on the celebration of seasonal festivals. One group, in the Rumbur valley, believe in a supreme creator called DEZAU or KHODAI, with a prophet or demi-god, BALAMAHIN, being his messenger or intermediary. A belief – by the people themselves, as well as some anthropologists – that they are descended from remnant of Alexander the Great's army – is not supported by latest mtDNA evidence. The Kalash are believed to have arrived from the Bashgal valley in Afghanistan after persecution by Muslim Arab forces in the10th century AD.

Kami

Gods or other supernaturals. Nature, which Shintoists perceive as divine, is also kami.

Kapua

A generic term for a shape-shifting group of generally monstrous demigods. They tend to be cruel, vindictive characters, all too eager to catch and devour humans. A smaller group appear as kindly creatures, caring for members of their own families. They have supernatural powers, their main ability being to appear sometimes as a human being and back into animal, plant or rock form.

Karliki

Generic term for Russian underworld dwarfs. Post Christianisation they were said to have fallen with Satan from Heaven.

Karma

Destiny or fate – the lifetime sum of a person's actions – which determine the person's fate in the life to follow.

Kumaon

he south-eastern half of the Himalayan Uttarkhand state, with its own astonishing regime of local deities. While the population are nominally worshippers of Lord SHIVA and the female principle SHAKTI, they worship in temples dedicated to a host of local deities, a number of whom appear to have started life as mortals, achieving divinity after death. Some of them may have been historical characters. They are grouped broadly into family gods (Kul Devatas), village gods (Gram Devatas), snake gods (Naga Devatas) and land gods (Bhumi Devatas). Another group, the Garh Devis, are protectors of cremation grounds. Eyes in the top of his head AIRY, ANYARI (female), BADHAN, BALCHAN, BHANDARI GOLLA, main temple at Champawat BHOLONATH (Shiva), goddess of fields BHUMIA, protector of animals CHAUMI, CHHURMAL, GABLA, GANGNATH, main temple at Chitai, GWALLA, former king of Champawat HARU, flute-playing god KAIL BISHT, LATAUL, NAGNATH, manifestation of Parvati NAINA DEVI, import of the Greek goddess Nana NANDA DEVI, NARSINGH, SAIM, SHANI (main temple at Byandhura) and UJYALI (female) are the best known.

L

Laestrygonians

A tribe of man-eating giants.

Lama

A Buddhist priest.

Lar (Lares)

Lars is singular, Lares plural. Any of numerous tutelary and chthonic deities. Their mother was LALA, later LARA or LARUNDA. They were originally gods of the cultivated fields, worshipped by each household at the crossroads where its allotment joined those of others. Later the Lares were worshipped in the houses in association with the PENATES, the gods of the storeroom (penus) and thus of the family’s prosperity; the household Lar (Familiaris) was the spirit protecting the head of the family, while other Lares were the spirits of ancestors. Other aspects included L. VICORUM, the protective spirits of roads, and the L. COMPITALES, the spirits of a neighbourhood, both of whom were honoured at the festival of Compitalia. The L. PRAESTITES are the protective spirits of a city; two protected Rome, depicted as dogs, or as men with dogs’ heads.

Lauku Dvasios

Spirits of the fields. When country folk saw the wind waving the crops they imagined this as the action of spirits. These include NUOGALIS, KISKIS (the hare), MESKA (the bear), LAPE (the fox), KATINAS (the tomcat), BUBAS/BUBIS/BUBE/BAUBAS/BABAUZIS/BOBAS/MAUMAS (the bugaboo, a goblin or bogeyman) RAUDONGALVIS (the red-headed), RAUDONGERKLIS (the red-throated), ZALIAAKIS (the green-eyed), PAPLESTAKIS/GUDA/DIZIKAS/SMAUGLIS (the boa?) RUGINIS (spirit of rye), PAPIOKE/PYPALAS/ZEBRIS/ARKLYS (the horse), and VILKAS (the wolf).

Laumė

A friendly fairylike female creature akin to a pixie, described either as being white, or as blue as the sky. Benevolent unless aroused.

Leshi (Lychie)

A generic term for woodland spirits said (after Christianisation) to have fallen out of Heaven with Satan and the KARLIKI, underworld dwarfs.

Loa (Lwa, L'wha)

A generic term for the spirit intermediaries of Haitian Vodou. They are also known as the Mystères or Invisibles. They link humanity with BONDYE (Bon Dieu, the Good God, the distant creator of all) and each have their own characteristics and are served through special rhythms, songs, dances and rituals, though they are not themselves deities.

Luonnotars

A generic term for the Finns' maidens of the air.

M

Mahavidyas

A generic term for 10 goddesses, aspects of the Divine Mother DURGA, or of KALI, or of DEVI. They represent the spectrum of female divinity from death-dealing horrors to gentle, loving and benign. This interpretation of supreme divinity appears to have arisen in the 6th century AD as part of Shaktism, a theistic form of Hinduism that perceived the supreme being as female. They are (from horrific to placid) KALI, TARA, SODASI, BHUVANES(H)VARI, BHAIRVAI, CHHINAMASTA, DHUMAVATI, BAGALAMUKHI, MATANGI and KAMALA. See separate entries for details.

Mahishasura

A buffalo demon.

Mandaeans

This minority and much-persecuted Gnostic sect claims descent from Seth and say they are the last of the followers of John the Baptist. They are known as the last Gnostics, or the last Babylonians, largely because of their worship of the goddess LIBAT/ISHTAR. Though they tend to speak Iraqi Arabic and modern Persian, their liturgical language is Semitic/Aramaic. Since the Iraq war of 2003 they are dispersed through Iran, Syria and Jordan and, in very small groups, further afield.

Mandir

A Hindu temple or place of worship.

Manes

Generic term, similar to the Romans' LARES, GENII and DI PENATES. They were souls of deceased loved ones who protected the living. Three times a year, on August 25, October 5 and November 8 a stone was ceremonially lifted from the ground to allow the Manes to rise. The Manes were led by MANIA GENITA, also called LARA or LARUNDA, though Ovid says their leader was MUTA. They had a powerful effect on the Roman imagination. In primitive times they were sacrificed young boys, but were later given poppies, and woollen dolls called maniae, which were hung over doorways for protection. On the Night of the Dead, the new moon nearest November 1, houses were sealed, windows shuttered and mirrors turned to the wall to prevent the Manes stealing children. The head of the household, meanwhile, performs a ceremony indoors to propitiate the spirits at the Lemuralia festival (May 9, 11 and 13). He also offers beans, wine, eggs, bread, roses, violets, honey, oil and the blood of sheep to the Manes at the Feralia festival on February 13. In the Oscan system the Manes were called Cominuii.

Mangareva

Mangareva is the central and largest island of the Gambier Islands in French Polynesia, South Pacific. It has its own complex mythology, related to an extent to the mythologies of 'nearby' Polynesian island groups such as Hawaii and Samoa. The vast majority of the Gambier Island population (1,000) live on Mangareva but I have classed their deities as 'Gambier Islands'.

Manicheanism

A belief system founded by the Iranian prophet Mani (216-276AD) combining elements of ancient Mesopotamian religions, Gnostic Christianity, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism. Its basic doctrine is dualistic, seeing the world as a conflict between light and dark, with matter being regarded as evil and spirit as good. The religion spread rapidly through Aramaic-Syrian speaking regions, challenging orthodox Roman Christianity as both struggled to replace classical paganism. Its height of influence was between the third and seventh centuries, dying away more quickly in the west than the east, and it became very popular in China.

Manioc Mothers

Generic: rainforest goddesses or spirits, prayed to to prevent famine. These three goddesses are sacred to a number of cultures, principally the Napo Kichwas of the Ecuadorian Amazon and the Mundurucú of Brazil.

Mantra

In Hindu and Buddhist rituals, a mantra is a repetitive devotional incantation designed to bring the chanter into an elevated spiritualism.

Mapuche

A people of south central Chile and south western Argentina, one of three Araucanian (qv) tribes.

Marid

The most powerful form of jinn, or spiritual being. They are arrogant, but can be persuaded to do chores and grant wishes.

Menehune

Generic term for a race of creatures living in the Hawaiian forests, rarely if ever seen by humans. Often described as of dwarfish size, they are superb craftspeople, and many of Hawaii's features – fishponds, roads, canoes, houses – are attributed to them to this day.

Messiah

A term relating to the Abrahamic religions and meaning a saviour or liberator, though not necessarily of Semitic origin: Cyrus the Great of Persia was described in the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) as a 'messiah' for decreeing the reconstruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. A messiah is a king or high priest – either literally or metaphorically – who is anointed into that role with sacred oil. The Jewish Messiah is a leader anointed by God and must be descended from the Davidic line of kings. His duty is to rule the united tribes of Israel and to usher in the 'world to come', the Messianic Age, a single earthly kingdom of love and peace. The Christian interpretation of messiahship is more spiritual, and rests in the perceived nature and role of Jesus of Nazareth, who is described as the risen Christ ruling a heavenly rather than earthly kingdom. Islam accepts Jesus's messiahship in relation to the Israelites but does not endorse the spiritualism of Christian claims; for Muslims Jesus is a prophet who, with the MAHDI, will return to the earth at the end of time to defeat MASIH AD-DAJJAL, the 'false Messiah' or Antichrist. Amadiyyah Muslims believe their founder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmed (1835-1908) was Jesus reborn and therefore the Messiah, a belief that brings them into conflict with mainstream Islam and of course Christianity.

Mihrab

A niche in the wall of a mosque indicating the direction of Mecca.

Mi Nbar

A mosque's pulpit, always to the right of the MIHRAB.

Moksha

The release from the cycle of death and reincarnation.

Mosque

An Islamic place of worship.

Muism

The shamanic tradition within the religion of Sinism (qv), though the terms Muism (mugyo) and Sinism (shingyo) are often used synonymously. The religion, which has 5-15 million followers, has several other names and is very similar to the Chinese Wuism (qv), the two words being etymologically tied. The Chinese also call the religion Shindo, which means 'way of the gods'; the Koreans add a syllable, Shindogyo, 'religion of the way of the gods'. Gosindo translates as 'way of the ancestral gods' and Pungwoldo as 'way of brightness'. All terms relate to the religion or its shamanism. The female shaman is a mu, mudang or kyongsing and the male a baksu, all of whom act as an intermediary between humans and the ancestral spirits or gods. Wuism, Japanse Shinto, the religion of the Ainu and the Siberian, Mongolian and Manchurian traditions are all similar.

Muspell

A generic term for fire giants, the Sons of Muspell, who will fight under the giant SAURT at Ragnarok.

N

Naga

A semi-human sacred serpent.

Nagual (Nahual)

The name is pronounced 'na-wal'. A widespread concept among MesoAmerican religions, apparently originating among the Pre-classic Olmec peoples, that of certain humans having the ability to transform themselves either metaphorically or actually into animal form. This is usually a jaguar or puma, but can be a donkey, bird, dog or coyote. These 'shape-shifters' may be good or evil according to their human personality.

Nereids

In Greek mythology, the generic name for the nymphs of the Aegean Sea, the (allegedly) 50 daughters of NEREUS and DORIS, though different authors supply different lists of names. This is a compilation from Homer's Iliad, Hesiod's Theogony, the Bibliotheca and Hyginus. They are: ACTAEA, AGAUE, AMATHEIA, AMPHINOME,AMPHITHOE, AMPHITRITE, APSEUDES, ARETHUSA, ASIA, AUTONOE, BEROE, CALLIANASSA, CALLIANEIRA, CALYPSO, CETO, CLIO, CLYMENE, CRANTO, CRENEIS, CYDIPPE, CYMO, CYMATOLEGE, CYMODOCE, CYMOTHOE, DEIOPEA, DERO, DEXAMENE, DIONE, DORIS, DOTO, DRYMO, DYNAMENE, EIONE, EPHYRA, ERATO, EUAGORE, EUARNE, EUCRANTE, EUDORE, EULIMENE, EUMOLPE, EUNICE, EUPOMPE, EURYDICE, GALENE, GALATEA, GLAUCE, GLAUCONOME, HALIE, HALIMEDE, HIPPONOE, HIPPOTHOE, IAERA, IANASSA, IANEIRAM IONE, IPHIANASSA, LAOMEDEIA, LEIAGORE, LEUCOTHOE, LIGEA, LIMNOREIA, LYCORIAS, LYSIANASSA, MAERA, MELITE, MENIPPE, NAUISTHOE, NEAERA, NEMERTES, NEOMERIS, NESAEA, NESO, OPIS, OREITHYIA, PANOPEA, PANOPE, PASITHEA, PHERUSA, PHYLLODOCE, PLEXAURE, PLOTO, POLYNOME, PONTOMEDUSA, PONTOPOREIA, POULUNOE, PRONOE, PROTO, PROTOMEDEIA, PSAMATHE, SAO, SPEIO, THALEIA, THEMISTO, THETIS, THOE, and XANTHO.

Nightmarchers

Generic: the ghosts of ancient Hawaiian warriors, the 'spirit ranks'. On nights dedicated to KANE, KU, LONO and AKUA and on the nights of the Kaloa festival they are said to come forth from their burial sites and to march past the sites of their battles or other sacred places. They march at sunset or just before sunrise. If living Hawaiians hear chanting and marching they must avoid eye contact, and if they can't get out of the way, they must prostrate themselves. Sometimes six gods march with the dead, three male and three female. The goddess HI'IAKA-I-KA-POLI-O-PELE (shortened to HI'IAKA) is usually one of the goddesses.

Nirvana

The state of perfect peace and happiness reached by sublimating individuality and freeing oneself from the 'weight' of karma.

Numen (Numina, Numena)

In the theological system of imperial Rome, the numen referred to the guardian spirit of the emperor, his divine power. With scholars of animism, it's the magical power residing in an object, location or activity: the product or expression of divine power, of creative energy or genius (though 'genius' in Rome had its own special meaning). Hence the adjective 'numinous'. In this encyclopaedia numen is often used to indicate divinity or divine presence/characteristics. But see INDIGIMENTUM.

Nykštukas

A generic term for a group of gnome-like creatures.

Nymphs

In Greek mythology, the generic name for five types of minor female nature deity associated with a particular location or geographical feature. The types are celestial nymphs, land-nymphs, water-nymphs, plant-nymphs and underworld nymphs. They are eternally amorous and nubile, often mated to a god, but not necessarily immortal themselves. The situation is complicated. In the celestial nymph area, there are the Aurae, or breezes, also called Aetae or Pnoae; the Asteriae or stars, mostly the daughters of ATLAS, the Atlantides; the Hesperides, again, daughters of Atlas and nymphs specifically of the west; the Pleiades (or Oreads), daughters of Atlas and PLEIONE, a constellation; the Hyades, also a constellation. Land-nymphs include: the Alseides, who inhabited glens and groves, the Auloniades (pastures), the Napaeae (mountain valleys), the Oreads (mountains, grottoes) and the Leimonides or Leimakides (meadows). Wood and plant nymphs include: the Anthousa (flowers); the Dryades or Hamadryades, often seen in English as Dryads (trees), or which the best known would be the Daphnaea (laurel) and the Epimeliades (apple tree guardians). The Hyleoroi watched over woodland in general. The Boucolai are pastoral nymphs, from which we get the word 'bucolic'. Water-nymphs include the Nereids (see above), the Hydriades or Ephydriades; the Haliae of the seashore, the Naiads or Naides of fresh water (but not rivers, or marches, ponds or lakes), the Crinaeae of fountains, the Eleionomae of wetlands, the Limnades or Limnatides of lakes, the Pegaeae of springs, the Potomeides of rivers, and the Oceanids, daughters of OCEANUS and TETHYS. Underworld nymph groups include: the Cocytiae, daughters of the river-god COCYTUS, the Lampades, HECATE'S torch-carrying followers.Other nymph groups would include the Hecaterides (rustic dance), the Maenads, Bacchai or Bacchantes, Dionysus's sexually-charged friends, the Muses of memory, knowledge and art, and the Themeides, daughters of ZEUS and THEMIS, renowned for being prophets and keepers of divine artefacts. Early Greek nymphs who rose to prominence included CALYPSO, CYRENE, ECHO, OENONE AND SILENE.

O

Ogdoad

A group of eight primordial Egyptian Old Kingdom (third to sixth dynasties, 2686-2134BC) deities from Hermopolis (the 'Hermopolitan Ogdoad'). They were husband-and-wife or king-and-consort pairs: AMUN and AMAUNET, HU(H) and HAUHET, KUK and KAUKET, and NUN and NAUNET. The males had frog heads, the females snake heads. They create an island of peace and order in the middle of Chaos and guard a cosmic egg laid by THOTH, out of which hatches the sun-god ATUM.

Ora

Generic: an Albanian protective spirit.

Orisha

In the Santeria/Vodun religious systems, though originally part of the Yoruba (Nigerian) belief system, the Orisha are multi-dimensional beings who represent the forces of nature. They have attributes and stories similar to the stories and attributes used to describe the ancient Greek and Roman pantheons. To the followers of Santeria, however, the Orisha are not remote divinities, they are vibrant, living entities who take an active part in everyday life.

P

Pa Hsien

Generic; the 'Eight Immortals' , epitomising the ideals of happiness, and the reason why the number eight is considered across China as lucky. Their legends were in oral tradition in the time of the Sung dynasty (960-1280AD) but were in literature – and works of art - from the Yuan dynasty (1280-1368AD) onwards.

Paramita

The notion of excellence and perfection, or by a popular etymological route, para (beyond, the further bank) + mita (that which has arrived), which gives a translation of 'gone beyond' or 'transcendent'. Certain Buddhist deities are considered to be paramitas.

Penates (The Penates)

Formally Di Penates, household gods of the Romans and other Latin peoples. In the narrow sense, they were gods of the penus (“household provision”), but by extension their protection reached the entire household. They are associated with other deities of the house, such as VESTA, and the name was sometimes used interchangeably with that of the LARES, any of various tutelary deities. The Penates are all or some specific group of deities with household connections, but their number and precise identity were a puzzle even to the ancients. The Penates were worshipped privately as protectors of the individual household and also publicly as protectors of the Roman state. Each house had a shrine with images of them that were worshipped at the family meal and on special occasions. Offerings were of portions of the regular meal or of special cakes, wine, honey, incense, and, more rarely, a blood sacrifice. The state as a whole worshipped the Penates Publici. This state cult occupied a significant role as a focal point of Roman patriotism and nationalism.

Q

Qu'ran (Koran, Quran)

The sacred and immutable scriptures of Islam, as revealed to the prophet MOHAMMED between 609 and 632AD and transcribed or memorised initially by his closest followers. Muslims believe it is a direct revelation from ALLAH, via the angel Gabriel (JIBRIL). It is divided into chapters (surah) and verses (ayah).

R

Reflex

A deity who is determined by and reproduces the essential features or qualities of some other deity.

Š

Šakti, Shakti

The female principle of divine energy, often represented by stylised female genitalia.

Š, Š

In the translation of many Mesopotamian, Sanskrit and Indo-European texts, this letter represents the notional sound 'sh'. I have sometimes allowed the 'sh' to go through: my argument in the case of Hindi is that we are more familiar with Krishna, say, than with the more confusing Kršn. If a deity whose name begins with 'Š' comes up, try looking under 'Sh'. And vice versa.

S

Samaritans

An ethnic and religious group, now numbering only about 750, descended from the ancient Semitic inhabitants of the Levant and Palestine. Their Abrahamic religion, Samaritanism, is closely allied to, but in conflict with, Judaism. This conflict arises from their claim to worship the true, pre-Babylonian exile religion of the ancient Israelites. They claim descent from the tribes of Ephraim, Manasseh and Levi, and believe the holiest site in Israel, dating from the time of Joshua, is Mount Gerizim, not Jerusalem.

Sanskrit

The oldest known Indo-Aryan language, vehicle of the Vedas, Hinduism's fundamental scripture.

Santeria

Also known as Regla de Ocha or La Regle Lucumi/Lukumi, Lucumi being a dialect of the Yoruba people of Nigeria. A rudimentary form of the religion survives (or has back-regenerated) in West Africa, but its contact with Christianity, specifically Catholicism, has given it its present form. Its adherents can be found in Cuba, Puerto Rica, the Dominican Republic, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina and increasingly in the US. It has priests, a complex set of rituals including trance (to contact ancestors and deities, the latter known as ORISHAS), animal sacrifice, dance and drumming. It was brought to the Caribbean by slaves, who were then forcibly Christianised. To disguise the African nature of Santeria, its adherents found similarities in the Catholic panoply of saints, and attached those saints to their orishas. See ORISHA, OLÓDÙMARÈ, ODUDUWA.

Satyr

A generic term for a class of woodland gods depicted in early Greek mythology. They were originally old and ugly, but later became virile and athletic. They are firstly depicted as having horses’ ears and tails, then with goat-like features, characteristics carried over into Roman legend. They were lustful and sensuous, amoral seducers, though their powers were seen as chthonic or forestal rather than divine. In Greek legend, PAN or DIONYSUS is their master; in Roman legend, the minor fertility deity SILENUS is their leader, conflated later with FAUNUS.

Seraph (Seraphim)

A seraph (plural, seraphim) is, in Christianity, the most powerful of the heavenly beings, a six-winged entity guarding the throne of God and constantly and eternally worshipping Him. Seraphs (the original Hebraic singular is 'saraph') are ranked only fifth (from ten) in Judaic angelology.

Sirens (Seirene)

Generic; half-bird, half-woman, these creatures lured sailors to their deaths. ODYSSEUS foiled them by plugging his sailors’ ears with wax. They were sired in some legends by mother TERPISCHORE and father PHORCYS or ACHELOUS.

Sylvani

A generic name for semi-divine woodland creatures, similar to satyrs, with whom they began to be identified in the 6th century BC, but with equine features and large pointed ears, they are lecherous males associated with nymphs.

Synagogue

A Jewish meeting-place for religious observance and instruction; also a Jewish assembly or congregation.

Syncretisation

A word favoured by religionists to describe the unification of the characteristics of two or more supernatural beings. Sometimes this means that one or more beings are subsumed or eclipsed by another or others; sometimes it means that another being altogether springs into existence with many of or all the characteristics of an earlier deity. I feel 'combine' and 'combination' to be easier on the ear and thought process, and have used it throughout; however, I may have missed one of two 'syncretisations', for which I apologise.

T

Taoism (Daoism)

Originating in the 2700s BC in China, Taoism (or Daoism) is a belief structure that crosses philosophical, ethical and religious boundaries to offer a way of living peaceably and harmoniously with the world and fellow humans. This A-Z will use the term Taoism. 'Tao' means 'way/path' or 'principle' and is a term used extensively in Chinese philosophies and religions other than Taoism. The 'tao' is the source of, and force behind, everything living. Though it is not theist, some branches have deified its legendary founder LAOZI or LAO TZU (pinyin: LĂOZĬ). Its principles include those of the opposing forces of Yin and Yang, the two sometimes depicted as goddesses, and uses the cosmological I Ching, a philosophical thought and behaviour system based on divination from the cast of hexagrams. The writings of the later Zhuangzi interprets and expands Taoist thought, which in its original form is rather ambiguous. Taoist thought tends to emphasis action through non-action ('wu'wei'), simplicity, spontaneity and the 'three treasures' - compassion, moderation and humility.

Temenos

A term meaning a piece of land set aside from common use and dedicated to a deity. A sanctuary, a sacred grove or a holy precinct are thus all temenos.

Temple

In many religions, the place of worship, sometimes the residence, of a god, goddess or several deities.

Tengu

A generic term for mischievous supernatural beings, the spirits of vain and resentful ancestors. They are renowned swordsmen under the command of a chief, living in trees in mountainous areas. They are sometimes depicted as having wings, and nearly always with long red noses or beaked mouths.

Theophoric

A person with theophoric name has the name of a deity embedded in their own: ie, Apollinarius,Theodore. A city can be theophoric, ie Athens, Heraklion.

Thyrsus

A pine-cone tipped rod carried by DIONYSUS and his satyrs, a phallic symbol.

Titan

A generic term for a family of early gigantic gods, the offspring of Heaven and Earth (GAIA). They include ATLAS, AURORA, CRONOS, HYPERION, IAPETUS, LETO, MAIA, MNEMOSYNE, PROMETHEUS and THEA.

Tokoloshe

For the Zulu people, the Tokoloshe is a dwarf-like malevolent spirit taking the form of a zombie, poltergeist, gremlin or small bear. He can become invisible by swallowing a pebble. He responds to evil people's call to cause trouble, to scare children and to create mischief. In South Africa he is sometimes called upon to increase virility. He can, at his worst, create sickness and even be the cause of a victim's death. He is sometimes pictured as having gouged-out eyes, Even today, people will put their bed up on bricks to prevent the Tokoloshe from attacking them at night: he is said to rape women and bite off people's toes as they sleep.

Torah

The law (teaching and guidance) of Moses, enshrined in the first five books of the Hebrew BIBLE, known to Christians as the PENTATEUCH.

Tutelary

Having the guardianship or charge of protecting a thing. Thus, Athena is the tutelary goddess of the city of Athens.

U

Uraeus

A form of rearing cobra, a common symbol of sovereignty, divinity or royalty in ancient Egypt. The uraeus is also the symbol for the early Egyptian goddess WADJET.

Utukku (Utukki)

In their earliest form, the Utukku were Sumerian spirits or demons who could be either beneficent or evil. The evil ones were called Edimmu or Ekimmu, and the good ones Shedu. One evil one called ASAG was slain by NINURTA; another was called ALÛ. The later Akkadians called them Utukki, and they were seven evil demons, the offspring of ANU and ANTU.

V

Vaimanika (Vemanika)

One of four categories of celestial in Jainism, these being astral or heavenly deities.

Valkyrie

Generic term for the troop of beautiful goddesses loyal to ODIN, serving in Valhalla and running his errands. The name means ‘ chooser of the slain’.

Vanir

Generic term for a group of gods superseded by the AESIR, who formed the bulk of the Scandinavian pantheon. The Vanir, responsible for wealth, commerce and fertility, were under the subjugation of the warlike AESIR. In reparation for the torture of their goddess GULLVEIG they demanded equal status with, or compensation from, the Aesir. In response, the Aesir declared war on the Vanir. After a series of defeats, the Aesir granted them equality, and a mingling of their races ensued.

Vedas

Ancient sacred scriptures comprising four collections of text believed to contain eternal truth. They were originally transmitted orally.

Vėlės

Generic and plural term for the spirits of dead human beings.

Vidyadevi

A group of 16 goddesses of knowledge and learning.

Vyantera

One of four categories of celestial beings, these being intermediary or peripatetic deities.

W

Wakan, Wakan Tanka, Wakanpi

Not a divinity, or even a spirit, as such, the concept of wakan is a central one to Lakota tradition. It is 'mystery', 'something marvellous', 'a sacred essence'. It is an impersonal force within all things, animate and inanimate alike. Some things have more of it than others, though - language is wakan, food is wakan, medicine (magic) is wakan, birth and death are wakan. To be a Wicasa Wakan (a shaman or medicine man) is to develop a great deal of wakan within oneself, and to utilise it conducting rituals, interpreting dreams, healing, and understanding hanbloglaka, the language of the spirit world. Wakan Tanka means 'great mystery', and is the supreme power of the Lakota universe. The term refers to all the spiritual powers of the universe, as if assembled round a camp fire – but this 'council' of spirits is also wakan tanka, a single all-powerful entity. This entity informs all space and time, and is present in all things animate and inanimate. The spirit underlying Wakan Tanka itself is INYAN, who caused all things to be by sacrificing His own nature, and thereby infusing all things with His nature. Wakan Tanka can be addressed directly in prayer and ritual, but His influence within the world is diffused through His elements and aspects. See also GREAT SPIRIT. These concepts give rise to the term Wakanpi, meaning all spirits, supernatural beings and divinities, benign or malignant, all of whom must be propitiated.

Wu

A generic term for female shamans (Brian Griffiths, Chinese goddess cults).

X

Xi

A generic terms for male shamans (Brian Griffiths, Chinese goddess cults).

Xindhi, Xindha

Male and female elves from Albanian folklore.

Y

Yazata

In the ancient Persian Avestan language, in which early Zoroastrianism is couched, a collective term for those deities subordinate to the six 'divine sparks' emanating from OHRMUZD or AHURA MAZDA, the supreme and ineffable deity. The name – in what is thought to be Proto-Indo-European, means 'worthy of worship' and the Yazata were known as 'the good powers'. Though many are simply forces for good – we might name them 'Beauty', 'Generosity' or 'Compassion' – several became named deities over time, drawing benevolent qualities such as beauty, generosity and compassion to themselves. MITHRA is regarded as the chief among Yazata. The only one recognised in Persian Islam is SRAOSHA or SAROSH, named by Muslims as the angel SURUSH.

Yezidi (Yazidi)

The reason followers of the ancient Kurdish Yezidi faith, yasdanism, are being hounded almost to extinction is their worship of the peacock angel MELEK TAUS. This deity rebelled against God but repented and was forgiven. Islamic State, which invaded Yezidi territory, believes that the Yezidi are devil-worshippers. They are concentrated in the Nineveh region of southern Kurdistan and in northern Iraq. Their monotheistic religion is part Zoroastrianism, sufism and a descendant of ancient Mesopotamian religions.

Z

Zoroastrianism (Mazdaism, Zarathustrianism)

One of the world's oldest living religions, Zoroastrianism (or Mazdaism, or Zarathustranism) places a supreme and unique creator god, AHURA MAZDA ('Wise Lord') at the centre of a cosmic war between good and evil, evil being personified in Zoroastrianism as the 'angry spirit' ANGRA MAINYU, who later becomes a demon or devil AHRIMAN. Though its roots can be traced back into the second millennium BC it was founded some time in the 5th century BC by an Iranian-speaking prophet named Zoroaster or Zarathustra and many of its precepts – among them free will, angels, messianic hope, judgement, heaven nd hell – have found their way into other major religions such as Judaism, Gnosticism, Christianity and Islam. Only about 200,000 people, mostly in India and Iran, class themselves as Zoroastrians. The religion appears to be declining.